Aims

Investigate causes of acculturative stress in Asian Americans. 

Procedures

2095 immigrants (half grew up in native country) were given a questionnaire about guilt, language proficiency, discrimination and fears of deportation. 

Findings

70% reported acculturative stress. 

Variable breakdown:

• Higher Language ability and bilingualism associated with lower stress. 

• Higher discrimination associated with higher stress. 

• Familial relations influenced level of stress.

Conclusions

Language plays key role in integration and is a key cause of acculturative stress. 

Aims

Investigate acculturative stress in Asian Americans.

Procedures

7997 teen immigrants (1st/2nd generation) from 26 cultures were given questionnaire measuring degree of acculturation.

 Questionnaire asked about asked about dominant culture, cross cultural interactions, family values, discrimination and socio-psychological adaption. 

Findings

36% integrated. 

High levels of identity confusion, linked with marginalisation. 

Exposure to dominant cultures increased rates of identification. 

Conclusions

Acculturation is experienced differently based on circumstances. 

Aims

Investigate influence of anchoring bias.

Procedures

70 German university students answered a questionnaire: 

• Question 1 was either "was Gandhi younger than 140 when he died?" OR "was Gandhi older than 9 when he died?" (anchor) 

• Q2: How old was he when he died? (Actual answer: 78)

Findings

Low anchor mean: 50.1. 

High Anchor mean: 66.7. 

Conclusions

Low anchor had greater affect than high, due to the impossible nature of high anchor. 

Aims

Investigate anchoring bias. 

Procedures

High school students were split into 2 conditions: 

• One 'lower' condition, where they had to estimate 1x2x3x4x5x6x7; 

• One 'higher', where they had to estimate 7x6x5x4x3x2x1. 

Findings

Median used to measure groups: 

• The 'lower' condition estimated average 512; 

• The 'higher' condition estimated average 2250. 

The actual answer was 40320. 

Conclusions

Anchoring bias can affect maths problems. First digit influenced value of outcome. 

Aims

Investigate extent to which similarity is factor in partner choice. 

Procedures

Study 1 involved a large sample of Undergraduates who answered questionnaires to describe psychological characteristics, values, and attitudes for their ideal romantic partner (without thinking of a specific individual). They also had to describe themselves. 

Study 2: 212 straight young couples (who had been together for 1 year) did a questionnaire about partner's personality traits as well as their own traits. 

Findings

Study 1: Showed the way participants described self was similar to ideal partner. 

Study 2: Results in line with study 1. 

Conclusions

Confirms that people want partners who are similar. Also found that couples who experienced most loving and harmonious relationships were similar but not identical. 

Aims

Investigate matching hypothesis.

Procedures

Photos were taken of 2 groups of engaged couples. In both, they were in 'natural' and real relationships that existed prior to the study. For the first group, independent judges rated the photos for physical attraction on a five point scale without knowing who was together. The individuals in the second group rated themselves and their partner. 

Findings

Partners received similar ratings, which was significantly different from how randomly generated couples were rated. Couples rated themselves similarly, more so than the judges did. 

Conclusions

Supports Matching Hypothesis; couples are similarly physically attractive.

Aims

Identify behaviours and establish indicative behaviour for end of relationships. 

Procedures

Longitudinal study of 197 American couples which began in 1983. 

Each individual was assessed on their satisfaction using 2 scales. 

85 couples were selected for further study, representing all parts of measured happiness spectrum. 

They were studied again 4 years later, then every year for the next ten years.

Findings

Pattern of negative communication was identified in unhappy couples ('4 horsemen of the apocalypse'): 

• Criticism (attacking/belittling) 

• Defensiveness (justifying own behaviour) 

• Contempt (scorn) 

• Stonewalling (ignoring problems).  

Conclusions

4 Horsemen of the apocalypse can indicate the end of a relationship. 

Aims

Test levels of conformity in different cultures using the Asch Paradigm.

Procedures

120 participants/culture, which were: Temne, Inuit, Scots. 

5/6 in condition were confederates. 

Individuals were tested 6 times:

• 1-2 were control, before 3 they were told that someone from their culture chose the correct one. 

• 4-6 confederates chose the wrong one in the test

Findings

High rates of conformity in Temne. Low rates of conformity in Inuit and Scots. 

Conclusions

Collectivist cultures have high conformity; Individualist cultures have low conformity. 

Aims

Investigate schizophrenia in different cultures. 

Procedures

Male and female participants from India, Ghana and US. All participants had schizophrenia and were interviewed about the voices. 

Findings

• India and Ghana: there was a positive dimension to the voices. The voices were at times familiar and 80% claimed to hear God. Fewer diagnostic labels used. 

• US: Was entirely negative. Only 10% heard familiar voices and 25% 'heard God'. 85% attributed diagnostic labels. 

Conclusions

Different cultures have different experiences with schizophrenia. Therefore, diagnosis would need to vary culturally. 

Aims

Investigate whether introduction of television would increase disordered eating in Fijian adolescent girls. 

Procedures

2 samples of 30 schoolgirls given 26 item Eating Attitudes Tests (EAT-26): 

• First, it was done three weeks after introduction of television (1995) 

• Then it was done three years after (1998). 

• Follow-up semi-structured interviews for binging/purging behaviour with weight and height taken. Follow-up semi-structured interview also asked about dieting habits, body image and generational difference. 

Findings

Significant difference between EAT-26 scores: 

1995 average: 12.7%

• No purging behaviour

• No dieting behaviour

1998 ave. 29.2%.

• Purging behaviour : 11.3%

• Dieting behaviour: 69%

Follow-up interview (1998) findings:

• 74% thought they were 'too big/fat'

• 77% responded that television made them change their body image

• 40% found that weight loss improved job prospects

• 31% believed their parents' generation made thm eat too much.

• Participants admired television personalities, and were largely unaware of editing.

Conclusions

Television changed eating habits in Fijian girls. Caused an increase of eating disorders. 

Aims

Study relationships across cultures.

Procedures

Over 10,000 males and females from 37 countries given two questionnaires, featuring questions on: 

• Desirable age for marriage 

• Preferred partner age

• Rating of 18 qualities of partners for importance (eg. ambition, physical attractiveness). 

Findings

All/almost all participants: 

• Men preferred younger women and women preferred older men 

• Men valued physical attractiveness more than women did, women valued good finances more than men. 

High number of participants: 

• Women valued ambition more than men did, men valued chastity more than women did 

Collectivist cultures placed higher value on virginity, and lower value on love. 

Individualistic cultures valued love more. 

Conclusions

Degree of agreement across cultures suggests universal mate selection preferences, due to different evolutionary selection pressures. Supports parental investment theory. 

Aims

Test role of cultural stereotypes in diagnosis.

Procedures

10 Participants (5 white, 5 coloured) diagnosed with mental illness (controlled for age, socioeconomic status, pathology). 

Semi-structured interviews which were videotaped, conducted by 10 clinicians (5 white, 5 coloured). Each of them interviewed 2 white and 2 coloured patients. 

Beforehand, they were asked to describe a healthy individual to establish an understanding of their concept of normality. 

Findings

White clinicians reported low self esteem & social competence in coloured patients, leading to reports of depression and inhibition in coloured patients.                              

Coloured clinicians: high aggression in white patients; high pathology in quiet patients. 

Conclusions

Cultural stereotypes influence diagnosis. 

Aims

To investigate diagnoses of 'sane' and 'insane'.

Procedures

8 confederates (5 males, 3 females with varying ages and occupations), checked into mental hospitals seeking help. 

12 hospital staff across the US were followed.

Confederates gave vague descriptions of schizophrenia symptoms as per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders No. 2 (DSM-II). 

All were admitted, and acted normal in the hospital, trying to convince staff of their sanity so they could be released.

Findings

Most released with schizophrenia in remission, and one with manic depressive psychosis.

Hospital stay was average 19 days (range of 7-52). Notes showed no observed abnormality, but the dianostic label remained. 

Conclusions

Validity of diagnosis is questionable. 

Aims

Investigate whether surprising/personally significant events can create flashbulb memories.

Procedures

Participants were given a questionnaire asking about deaths of JFK, MLK and family members (all of which had occurred in last 20 years) Asked questions to indicate rehearsal, emotion and significance level. 

Findings

90% recalled a significant amount of detail of day when events occurred, especially of loved one. 

75% black had family member for MLK, compared to 33% white. 

Conclusions

Flashbulb memory creation was influenced by personal relevance to event. 

Aims

Study the role of emotion in the creation of memories.

Procedures

Participants divided into 2 groups, which were each shown 12 slides: 

• Condition 1: Participants were presented with a mundane story about woman and son visiting father in a hospital, where they witnessed the staff in a disaster preparation drill for an accident victim. 

• Condition 2: Participants were presented with a story where the boy was in a car accident, as a consequence of which his feet were severed, and was brought to the hospital where the surgeons reattached the injured limbs. Then he stayed in the hospitals for some weeks before returning home with his mother. 

Afterwards, they had to rate how emotional the story was to them on scale of 1-10. 

2 weeks later, their memories of the story were tested via recognition task that were multiple choice questions. 

Findings

Participants who had heard the more emotionally arousing story demonstrated better recall of specific details of the story. They could also recall more details from the slides.

Conclusions

High emotional arousal can create flashbulb memories, and plays a role in the creation of flashbulb memory. 

Aims

Determine role genetics plays in major depressive disorder (MDD) in a Swedish sample

Procedures

Involved 15,493 twin pairs (zygosity verified). 

Conducted through telephone interviews, assessing by DSM-IV (diagnostic and statistic manual). 

Respondants also asked about shared versus individual environments

Findings

8056 met criteria -- 322 antidepressant history. 

• FF (M) -- highest concordance 0.44. 

• MM & MF (D) -- lowest concordance 0.11. 

Conclusions

D > M & Female > Male in terms of heritability. 

No correlation between environment shared and MDD. 

Suggests it is sex-specific. 

Aims

Study the role of emotion in the creation of memories.

Procedures

Procedure of (McGaugh and Cahill 1995) was repeated, but in experimental condition, participants were injected with beta-blocker or placebo. 

Beta blocker (propranolol) targets cells to ensure heart pumps slowly and efficiently. It prevented activation of the amygdala, which stimulates secretion of hormones (adrenaline and cortisol). 

Findings

Participants that had received the beta-blocker did no better than the group that had heard the "mundane" story.

Conclusions

The amygdala plays a significant role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal.

Aims

Understand effects of hippocampal removal surgery (causing retro- and anterograde amnesia) on Henry Molaison to treat epilepsy. 

Procedures

Triangulated methods: 

• IQ Test 

• Observations 

• Interviews 

• Recollection test 

• MRIs

Findings

HM could not acquire new episodic or semantic memories. However, he could recall and form cognitive maps of his house. He had a functioning working and procedural memory, however, could not recall the learning process. 

The MRI showed hippocampal damage. 

Conclusions

Memories contain several stores. Hippocampus plays a key role in conversion of memories from short to long term stores. Short term memories are not stored in the hippocampal area. 

Aims

Investigate how cognitive processes lead to to neuroplasticity in hippocampi in taxi drivers in London.

Procedures

Involved 16 male, right-handed taxi drivers, who had at least 1.5 years of experience. 

The drivers took a knowledge test validate their knowledge of London, and had MRIs of their brains taken. 

Their MRIs were compared with 50 MRIs of right handed normal males. 

It was a single-blind study, with voxel-based morphology (VBM) and pixel-counting being used to study the MRIs. 

Findings

Taxi Drivers: larger posterior hippocampi, smaller anterior hippocampi. 

Volume of right posterior hippocampus correlated to time spent as driver.

Conclusions

Hippocampus may change based on environmental demands. 

Posterior hippocampus localised for store of learned spacial information. 

Anterior hippocampus localised for encoding new environmental layouts.

Aims

Test whether there are specific neural mechanisms associated with romanitc love. 

Procedures

Involved 10 females, 7 males who were intensely in love for an average 7.4 months. 

A semi-structured interview was carried out to establish duration and intensity of love and then completed passionate love scale (likert scale questionnaire that measures traits associated with love). 

Questionnaires were compared with brain activity on fMRI, where they looked at a photo of their partner for 30 seconds for 6 times (in between each photo there was a filler task where they looked at a neutral photo for 30 seconds). 

Findings

Activity in brain's reward system; high level of dopamine. 

Higher passion, higher activity. 

Conclusions

Biologically supports correlation between attitudes towards love and brain activity. Romantic love is a motivation system encouraging mating, powered by dopamine transmission. 

Aims

Investigate role of pheromones in attraction.

Procedures

44 men wore the same t-shirt to sleep for 2 nights. Their Major Histocompatibility Complexes (MCH) genes were determined. 

47 women on their period were presented with 7 boxes: 

• 1 control 

• 3 MCH dissimilar 

• 3 MCH similar 

They rated the boxes (intensity and sexiness). The women had to prepare themselves a nose spray for the 14 days before the experiment to support the regeneration of the nasal mucous membrane and to prevent colds or flu. 

Findings

Women preferred smell of MCH dissimilar males, unless they were on the pill (they preferred MCH similar). 

Conclusions

MCH may influence mate choice. 

Aims

Investigate role of leading questions in influencing memories in eyewitnesses. 

Procedures

Student participants told to estimate speed of car crash after watching series of fimed accidents. 

Asked with leading phrases: Leading phrases: contacted, hit, bumped, collided smashed.

Findings

Difference of 9m/h in mean estimated speed. This was significant. 

Conclusions

Critical word affected estimate. Distortion of memory due to activation of different schemas in recollection. 

Aims

Investigate effect of schemas on recollection of an ambiguous text. 

Procedures

Researchers read out a text to 52 participants:

• Control: passage with no addition information 

• Condition 1: title and theme given after

• Condition 2: title and theme given before

Participants were then asked to recall the text as accurately as possible. They were scored based on how many idea points they accurately recalled. They were also asked about their comprehension of the passage.

Findings

The results were as follows:

• Control: 2.29 on comprehension; 2.82 on recall 

• Condition 1 (after): 2.12 on comprehension; 2.65 on recall 

• Condition 2 (before): 4.50 on comprehension; 5.83 on recall

Conclusions

Prior knowledge of a situation does not guarantee its usefulness for comprehension. In order for prior knowledge to aid comprehension, it must become an activated semantic context.

Aims

Investigate impact of cultural schemas on recollection of a foreign text. 

Procedures

British participants told Native American legend 'War of the Ghosts'. Two conditions in text reproduction: serial and repeated. 

Findings

Memory of story was distorted (no significant difference between conditions). Story was assimilated, levelled and sharpened. 

Conclusions

Recall is an active process, and includes changing it to fit into schemas. For info to be encoded into long term memory, must have semantic significance. 

Aims

Demonstrate that children will imitate observed aggression displayed by adults. 

Procedures

36 male and female toddlers observed behaviour displayed by a model. 

8 Independent conditions: 

• Gender of the toddler

•  Presence of aggression 

• In non-aggressive conditions, the model played quietly with toys

• In aggressive conditions the displayed scripted aggression towards bobo doll after one minute 

The toddlers were observed in a nursery with aggressive and non-aggressive toys. There was mild aggression arousal before behaviour was being observed. 

Aggression (physical, verbal, towards toys) was measured on a 5 point scale.

Findings

Those in aggressive conditions displayed more aggression than those in non-aggressive conditions. 

Boys displayed more aggression if model was male. 

Male models stimulated physical aggression, female models stimulated verbal aggression. 

Conclusions

Aggressive behaviour is learned through observation. 

Aims

Investigate whether inter-group discrimination would occur if boys were split into different groups. 

Procedures

48 teenage boys were put into 2 groups based on whether they preferred paintings by Kandinsky or Klee, after rating 12 of them in a single blind design. 

Each boy had to allocate points to 2 other boys. One was from the in-group, one was from the out-group. 

There were 2 point allocation systems: 

• The first was a linked point score, whereby sum of 2 scores was 15 (ie. if one was awarded 7, the other would automatically be awarded 8) 

• The second was manipulated by Tajfel -- If one chose high value for another in-group member, there would be a higher out-group profit. If a one chose a mid-range value for another in-group member, there would be an equal out-group profit. If a one chose a low value for another in-group member, there would be a lower out-group profit. 

Findings

System 1: more points were allocated to the in-group. 

System 2: in-group profit was sacrificed to decrease out-group profit.  

Conclusions

There is a natural tendency to favour the in-group. The participants identified with the artificial in-group and created a positive social identity by awarding in-group more points. Only 'minimal group' is necessary for out-group discrimination, not necessarily a specific conflict. 

Aims

Test the affinity complex and mere exposure effect.

Procedures

Involved 130 students in a large college course.

4 female confederates posed as students attending class sessions. Each attended different number of classes (0, 5, 10, 15). 

While in the lecture, the girls had no interaction with other students, only arrived, sat at front, took notes and left. At the end of term, students were shown a slideshow of women and the perceived familiarity, attractiveness, similarity, popularity, etc. were measured on a scale from 1-7. 

Findings

The women seen most often were rated as most attractive. Positive increasing relationship between mere exposure and rating. 

Conclusions

Mere exposure has weak effect on familiarity but strong effect on attraction and similarity.

Aims

Investigate illusionary correlation.

Procedures

70 US Undergraduate students (equal male/female split) were presented with a slide show about 'Group A and B'. 

Group A had twice as many participants as group B (thus group B was a minority group). The participants were informed of this. 

Each slide showed a positive or negative statement about one person in each group. Proportion of positive/negative statements for each group was equal.

 Participants had to rank group members based on 20 traits, then recall whether this person was from group A or B.

 Finally, they were asked if any statements were undesirable. 

Findings

A > B for ranked positive traits. 

A > B for recalled positive traits (74% > 54 %).

B > A for recalled negative traits (65% > 55%) 

Conclusions

Because minority group was smaller, negative traits seemed more distinct and representative of the group. Suggests why stereotypes are more commonly associated with minority groups. 

Aims

Investigate stereotype threat's effect on test performance.

Procedures

76 male and female, black and white undergraduates. 

2 conditions: 

• Test of verbal ability (stereotype threat condition) 

• Test of problem-solving skills. 

Findings

Male/female no difference. 

Black/white; black participants performed poorly at test of verbal ability, but equal at problem-solving skills. 

Conclusions

Stereotype threat effects test performance. 

Aims

Investigate if reception context (eg. source) would make a difference in the vividness and accuracy of memory of an event.

Procedures

329 psychology students were asked to recall how they heard about Osama bin Laden's assasination and what they remembered two days after the assassination and then again either 7, 42, 224, or 365 days later. 

They had to rate memories on vividness, accuracy, etc. on 7 point scale. 

Findings

After two days: television exposure was strongest variable in accuracy and the vividness of the memory. 

For accuracy of recall, personal communication was the weakest; for vividness, it was social media. 

Up to one year later: the reception context did not make a difference.

Conclusions

Over time, the reception context of flashbulb memories does not make a difference in its formation and maintenance. 

Aims

Test availability heuristic on how Facebook users evaluate themselves vs others.  

Procedures

425 Undergraduates participated in a survey to indicate agreement of statements regarding perception of friend's lives and emotional state, usage of Facebook and time spent with friends in person. 

Findings

More Facebook usage led to better perception of friend's lives compared to their own (vice versa)

Conclusions

More Facebook usage results in increased likelihood to compare oneself to others, due to over-estimation that the extent that behaviour of others reflects disposition not situation. Vice versa. 

Aims

Determine effects of prolonged video game playing on brains of young adults.

Procedures

Participants played Super Mario for 30 minutes daily for 2 months. 

Pre/post test design used MRIs taken before and after and compared to control group. 

Findings

Volume of grey matter increased in prefrontal cortex (cognitive control), cerebellum (motor function), hippocampus (memory). 

Conclusions

Biologically supports the fact that video games can change brain structure in young adults. 

Aims

Investigate if internet has become transactive memory store. 

Procedures

60 undergraduate participants were asked to type 40 trivia facts into a computer. 

Half of the information was saved; half of the information was erased. 

Half of the participants were asked to remember; half were not told anything.

Then the participants were given 10 minutes to recall as much as possible. 

Findings

Being asked to remember showed no significant difference in recall. However, when told about storage of info, there was significant differance (19% recall for saved, 29% recall for erased). 

Conclusions

Saved information resulted in less effort to store. Participants experienced digital amnesia. 

Aims

Investigate relationship between action games and cognition. 

Procedures

Participants with an average of age 26 who hadn't played video games in a year split into 2 groups: 

• 1st played 2 hours of action games for 50 hours total 

• 2nd played a simulation game. 

They then needed to do a computer task involving dot patterns. 

Findings

Both able to do task, but the 1st group were able to do it quicker with less mistakes. 

Conclusions

Demostrates positive effects of moderate gaming on cognition. 

Aims

Demonstrate difficulty in estimating a reliable diagnosis

Procedures

131 patients randomly selected. 

7 Clinical experts re-evaluated a diagnosis, which was compared to the original. 

Findings

89 participants were originally diagnosed with Schizophrenia; 16 maintained their diagnosis.   

50 participants were originally diagnosed with mood disorders; 15 maintained their diagnosis

Conclusions

Patients with the same symptoms do not receive the same same diagnoses. It is therefore important to triangulate diagnosis. 

Aims

Investigate effect of articulatory suppression on working memory model.  

Procedures

34 Undergraduate students.

Experimental participants were asked to recall list of letters while saying '1, 2'. 7 randomly chosen dissimilar letters. 

Control: participants showed list for 5 second.

Participants were asked to write correct order of letters ten times. 

Findings

Experimental (45% accurate recall) < Control (76% accurate recall). Similar standard deviations. 

Conclusions

Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in phonological loop due to overload. Supports working memory model.